Hannibal and the Carthaginian Empire Essay

Hannibal was great and famous Carthaginian general. He is remembered for his great strategic skills on the battle field and as a great military chief. Born in late 247 BC, was the oldest son of Hamilcar Barca. In 237 BC, Hamilcar took his nine year old son, Hannibal, to the altar of a Carthaginian god and made him pledge eternal hatred to the Romans. Then Hannibal and his father left for Spain. The headquarters of Carthaginian power in Spain was the city of New Carthage. Hannibal saw immediately his father’s techniques for war . When Hamilcar perished in the battle of 230 BC, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, became the military leader plus the political leader and continued Carthage’s pressure in Spain. In 226 BC Hasdrubal signed an agreement with the Romans. The agreement stated that neither army could cross the Ebro River in the northern Spain . When Hasdrubal was murdered in 221 BC, the Carthaginians collectively elected twenty-six-year-old Hannibal to be the leader in Carthaginian government and commandant of the army in Spain. After Hamilcar’s death Hannibal became an excellent military leader. â€Å"Under [Hannibal’s] control the Carthaginians made large territorial advances†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (I-cias). He learned quickly how to be a leader and with the support of his brothers he was able to succeed through his battles. Hannibal was crossing the Alps and was able to receive rations for a couple days. â€Å"On the third day he captured a Gallic town and provided the army from its stores with rations for two or three days† (Alps). He wanted the best for his army, but had little support from Carthage. Despite the number of men falling from the army due to natural disasters he managed to recruit others. â€Å"Even if many fell from his army during this march because of snowstorms, landslides, and attacks from hostile local tribes, he managed to recruit new personnel along the route. † His strategy was to respond quickly to these natural disasters and it helped him. Hannibal earned his success by enduring hardships with his recruits and reinforcements. Hannibal experienced many challenges including battle delays little amount of military equipment and a small number of reinforcements from home. Other military leaders knew he would not be able to handle a delay due to the lack of preparation he took for each battle. â€Å"He [Fabius, Roman Military Leader] believed that Hannibal lacked the equipment for a prolonged siege and that a delay in the battle would seriously reduce the Carthaginian food supply†. Rome believed that delays would end in the conquering of Hannibal because of the lack of necessities there was little he could do. Hannibal began to suffer during his career due to the lack of food. â€Å"Zama was the only defeat. Hannibal suffered in his military career† . After his defeat his enemies began to discover his weakness. Hannibal was running out of everything during the Battle of Cannae and his help refused to aid him. â€Å"Hannibal needed reinforcements, which the Carthaginian government refused to furnish, and he also lacked siege weapons† . Hannibal’s restrictions could have given him success, had he been willing to bargain with another force greater then his own. Hannibal was the instrument of his own undoing. Hannibal was set on being the conqueror and set on some one else’s defeat, which lead him to his own. His enemy, Rome, was the center of his downfall. He would never settle and there was no satisfaction between them. â€Å"†¦In 218, he clashed with the Roman army. The Romans claimed that this was a break of an existing treaty between Rome and Carthage and demanded Hannibal surrendered to them†¦the Second Punic War started† (I-cias). If Hannibal conquered Romans he would never be able to rule over. â€Å"According to legend, Hamilcar had made the young Hannibal swear on a sacred altar that he would remain an enemy of Rome for life† . Hannibal had made a promise to his father, therefore intending to go on with nothing. â€Å"The loss of the second city of Italy cost Hannibal the allegiance of many of his Italian allies and put an end to his hopes of further replenishing his army from their ranks† . Hannibal had lost it all. His hope had been limited at this point. Hannibal both succeeded and failed. He never won the hearts of the people; therefore he was never able to truly be victorious. Hannibal married a Spanish princess and conquered the surrounding land and took hostages from the adjacent tribes to assure their loyalty to him without crossing the Ebro River, except for the city of Saguntum, an ally of Rome. When Saguntum began trouble between Carthage and Rome in 219 BC, Hannibal invaded the city. This began the Second Punic War . After hearing the declaration of war Hannibal immediately starts off towards Rome. The problem was he had to go by land since Rome controlled the seas. Hannibal began a long and hazardous expedition across the Pyrenees and the Alps in August of 218, with battle elephants walking at the front of his army . In the spring of 218 BC, Hannibal handed over command of the Spanish armies to his brother Hasdrubal. He then led his troops north toward the Pyrenees Mountains and began one of the most famous journeys in history . Hannibal’s army included Libyans and Numidians from North Africa, Iberians and Celtiberians from Spain, and Gauls from Spain, France, and Italy. There were thirty-five thousand foot soldiers, twelve thousand horsemen, and fifty war elephants. Hannibal used the elephants to break infantry lines and to create fear and disorder. The elephants also frightened horses, so they were able to disrupt the enemy’s cavalry . In the Pyrenees, Hannibal encountered resistance from local tribes. He lost a lot of his men to fighting, and some of the mercenaries went home because they were scared of the long journey. With all this, Hannibal continued to move as quickly as possible, but bad luck fell into Hannibal’s lap as early snows and landslides kill many of his men and almost all of his war elephants . He enters Italy with only twenty-six thousand men and five or six war elephants in September 218. Hannibal and his troops spent the winter in Po Valley. In the spring of 217 BC When news of Hannibal’s army reached Rome, the Gauls of northern Italy revolted. They joined Hannibal in fighting the Romans. Now Hannibal had a sufficient army of infantry and cavalry. The Romans had plans to attack Carthage and New Carthage, but they had to be delayed because of the rebelling tribes in Italy and the approach of Hannibal. So the Romans sent troops under the command of Publius Cornelius Scipio, to stop Hannibal at Massilia . Massilia is on the French coast where the Rhone River runs into the Mediterranean Sea. The Rhone is a wide river with a swift current, so it was a great obstacle to Hannibal. Scipio’s troops set up camp by the sea, thinking that Hannibal would reach Massilia in the near future. But he did not realize how fast Hannibal was moving his troops . When Scipio received news of Hannibal, it was too late. Hannibal had moved his entire army across the Rhone, fifty miles north of Massilia . Although Hannibal’s army had been reduced to twenty-six thousand infantry, nine thousand horses, and five or six elephants, it was a great accomplishment to get across the Rhone. To transport the elephants, the men built rafts . When the Alps came into view, Hannibal allowed his army a few days to rest, because he knew that his army had doubts about crossing the Alps. Never before had elephants crossed the Alps. The army did not reach the Alps until late in the year, and many troops and horses were killed. Some troops who came from warmer climates died from the cold. Some troops died of hunger because food was short to come by. Others died in fights with mountain tribes. Some of the mountain tribes rolled big stones down the mountains and caused men and animals to fall from the narrow mountain passage .

A Game of Thrones Chapter Twenty-three

Daenerys The Dothraki sea,† Ser Jorah Mormont said as he reined to a halt beside her on the top of the ridge. beneath them, the plain stretched out immense and empty, a vast flat expanse that reached to the distant horizon and beyond. It was a sea, Dany thought. Past here, there were no hills, no mountains, no trees nor cities nor roads, only the endless grasses, the tall blades rippling like waves when the winds blew. â€Å"It's so green,† she said. â€Å"Here and now,† Ser Jorah agreed. â€Å"You ought to see it when it blooms, all dark red flowers from horizon to horizon, like a sea of blood. Come the dry season, and the world turns the color of old bronze. And this is only hranna, child. There are a hundred kinds of grass out there, grasses as yellow as lemon and as dark as indigo, blue grasses and orange grasses and grasses like rainbows. Down in the Shadow Lands beyond Asshai, they say there are oceans of ghost grass, taller than a man on horseback with stalks as pale as milkglass. It murders all other grass and glows in the dark with the spirits of the damned. The Dothraki claim that someday ghost grass will cover the entire world, and then all life will end.† That thought gave Dany the shivers. â€Å"I don't want to talk about that now,† she said. â€Å"It's so beautiful here, I don't want to think about everything dying.† â€Å"As you will, Khaleesi,† Ser Jorah said respectfully. She heard the sound of voices and turned to look behind her. She and Mormont had outdistanced the rest of their party, and now the others were climbing the ridge below them. Her handmaid Irri and the young archers of her khas were fluid as centaurs, but Viserys still struggled with the short stirrups and the flat saddle. Her brother was miserable out here. He ought never have come. Magister Illyrio had urged him to wait in Pentos, had offered him the hospitality of his manse, but Viserys would have none of it. He would stay with Drogo until the debt had been paid, until he had the crown he had been promised. â€Å"And if he tries to cheat me, he will learn to his sorrow what it means to wake the dragon,† Viserys had vowed, laying a hand on his borrowed sword. Illyrio had blinked at that and wished him good fortune. Dany realized that she did not want to listen to any of her brother's complaints right now. The day was too perfect. The sky was a deep blue, and high above them a hunting hawk circled. The grass sea swayed and sighed with each breath of wind, the air was warm on her face, and Dany felt at peace. She would not let Viserys spoil it. â€Å"Wait here,† Dany told Ser Jorah. â€Å"Tell them all to stay. Tell them I command it.† The knight smiled. Ser Jorah was not a handsome man. He had a neck and shoulders like a bull, and coarse black hair covered his arms and chest so thickly that there was none left for his head. Yet his smiles gave Dany comfort. â€Å"You are learning to talk like a queen, Daenerys.† â€Å"Not a queen,† said Dany. â€Å"A khaleesi.† She wheeled her horse about and galloped down the ridge alone. The descent was steep and rocky, but Dany rode fearlessly, and the joy and the danger of it were a song in her heart. All her life Viserys had told her she was a princess, but not until she rode her silver had Daenerys Targaryen ever felt like one. At first it had not come easy. The khalasar had broken camp the morning after her wedding, moving east toward Vaes Dothrak, and by the third day Dany thought she was going to die. Saddle sores opened on her bottom, hideous and bloody. Her thighs were chafed raw, her hands blistered from the reins, the muscles of her legs and back so wracked with pain that she could scarcely sit. By the time dusk fell, her handmaids would need to help her down from her mount. Even the nights brought no relief. Khal Drogo ignored her when they rode, even as he had ignored her during their wedding, and spent his evenings drinking with his warriors and bloodriders, racing his prize horses, watching women dance and men die. Dany had no place in these parts of his life. She was left to sup alone, or with Ser Jorah and her brother, and afterward to cry herself to sleep. Yet every night, some time before the dawn, Drogo would come to her tent and wake her in the dark, to ride her as relentlessly as he rode his stallion. He always took her from behind, Dothraki fashion, for which Dany was grateful; that way her lord husband could not see the tears that wet her face, and she could use her pillow to muffle her cries of pain. When he was done, he would close his eyes and begin to snore softly and Dany would lie beside him, her body bruised and sore, hurting too much for sleep. Day followed day, and night followed night, until Dany knew she could not endure a moment longer. She would kill herself rather than go on, she decided one night . . . Yet when she slept that night, she dreamt the dragon dream again. Viserys was not in it this time. There was only her and the dragon. Its scales were black as night, wet and slick with blood. Her blood, Dany sensed. Its eyes were pools of molten magma, and when it opened its mouth, the flame came roaring out in a hot jet. She could hear it singing to her, She opened her arms to the fire, embraced it, let it swallow her whole, let it cleanse her and temper her and scour her clean. She could feel her flesh sear and blacken and slough away, could feel her blood boil and turn to steam, and yet there was no pain. She felt strong and new and fierce. And the next day, strangely, she did not seem to hurt quite so much. It was as if the gods had heard her and taken pity. Even her handmaids noticed the change. â€Å"Khaleesi,† Jhiqui said, â€Å"what is wrong? Are you sick?† â€Å"I was,† she answered, standing over the dragon's eggs that Illyrio had given her when she wed. She touched one, the largest of the three, running her hand lightly over the shelf. Black-and-scarlet, she thought, like the dragon in my dream. The stone felt strangely warm beneath her fingers . . . or was she still dreaming? She pulled her hand back nervously. From that hour onward, each day was easier than the one before it. Her legs grew stronger; her blisters burst and her hands grew callused; her soft thighs toughened, supple as leather. The khal had commanded the handmaid Irri to teach Dany to ride in the Dothraki fashion, but it was the filly who was her real teacher. The horse seemed to know her moods, as if they shared a single mind. With every passing day, Dany felt surer in her seat. The Dothraki were a hard and unsentimental people, and it was not their custom to name their animals, so Dany thought of her only as the silver. She had never loved anything so much. As the riding became less an ordeal, Dany began to notice the beauties of the land around her. She rode at the head of the khalasar with Drogo and his bloodriders, so she came to each country fresh and unspoiled. Behind them the great horde might tear the earth and muddy the rivers and send up clouds of choking dust, but the fields ahead of them were always green and verdant. They crossed the rolling hills of Norvos, past terraced farms and small villages where the townsfolk watched anxiously from atop white stucco walls. They forded three wide placid rivers and a fourth that was swift and narrow and treacherous, camped beside a high blue waterfall, skirted the tumbled ruins of a vast dead city where ghosts were said to moan among blackened marble columns. They raced down Valyrian roads a thousand years old and straight as a Dothraki arrow. For half a moon, they rode through the Forest of Qohor, where the leaves made a golden canopy high above them, and the trunks of the trees were as wide as city gates. There were great elk in that wood, and spotted tigers, and lemurs with silver fur and huge purple eyes, but all fled before the approach of the khalasar and Dany got no glimpse of them. By then her agony was a fading memory. She still ached after a long day's riding, yet somehow the pain had a sweetness to it now, and each morning she came willingly to her saddle, eager to know what wonders waited for her in the lands ahead. She began to find pleasure even in her nights, and if she still cried out when Drogo took her, it was not always in pain. At the bottom of the ridge, the grasses rose around her, tall and supple. Dany slowed to a trot and rode out onto the plain, losing herself in the green, blessedly alone. In the khalasar she was never alone. Khal Drogo came to her only after the sun went down, but her handmaids fed her and bathed her and slept by the door of her tent, Drogo's bloodriders and the men of her khas were never far, and her brother was an unwelcome shadow, day and night. Dany could hear him on the top of the ridge, his voice shrill with anger as he shouted at Ser Jorah. She rode on, submerging herself deeper in the Dothraki sea. The green swallowed her up. The air was rich with the scents of earth and grass, mixed with the smell of horseflesh and Dany's sweat and the oil in her hair. Dothraki smells. They seemed to belong here. Dany breathed it all in, laughing. She had a sudden urge to feel the ground beneath her, to curl her toes in that thick black soil. Swinging down from her saddle, she let the silver graze while she pulled off her high boots. Viserys came upon her as sudden as a summer storm, his horse rearing beneath him as he reined up too hard. â€Å"You dare!† he screamed at her. â€Å"You give commands to me? To me?† He vaulted off the horse, stumbling as he landed. His face was flushed as he struggled back to his feet. He grabbed her, shook her. â€Å"Have you forgotten who you are? Look at you. Look at you!† Dany did not need to look. She was barefoot, with oiled hair, wearing Dothraki riding leathers and a painted vest given her as a bride gift. She looked as though she belonged here. Viserys was soiled and stained in city silks and ringmail. He was still screaming. â€Å"You do not command the dragon. Do you understand? I am the Lord of the Seven Kingdoms, I will not hear orders from some horselord's slut, do you hear me?† His hand went under her vest, his fingers digging painfully into her breast. â€Å"Do you hear me?† Dany shoved him away, hard. Viserys stared at her, his lilac eyes incredulous. She had never defied him. Never fought back. Rage twisted his features. He would hurt her now, and badly, she knew that. Crack. The whip made a sound like thunder. The coil took Viserys around the throat and yanked him backward. He went sprawling in the grass, stunned and choking. The Dothraki riders hooted at him as he struggled to free himself. The one with the whip, young Jhogo, rasped a question. Dany did not understand his words, but by then Irri was there, and Ser Jorah, and the rest of her khas. â€Å"Jhogo asks if you would have him dead, Khaleesi, † Irri said. â€Å"No,† Dany replied. â€Å"No.† Jhogo understood that. One of the others barked out a comment, and the Dothraki laughed. Irri told her, â€Å"Quaro thinks you should take an ear to teach him respect.† Her brother was on his knees, his fingers digging under the leather coils, crying incoherently, struggling for breath. The whip was tight around his windpipe. â€Å"Tell them I do not wish him harmed,† Dany said. Irri repeated her words in Dothraki. Jhogo gave a pull on the whip, yanking Viserys around like a puppet on a string. He went sprawling again, freed from the leather embrace, a thin line of blood under his chin where the whip had cut deep. â€Å"I warned him what would happen, my lady,† Ser Jorah Mormont said. â€Å"I told him to stay on the ridge, as you commanded.† â€Å"I know you did,† Dany replied, watching Viserys. He lay on the ground, sucking in air noisily, red-faced and sobbing. He was a pitiful thing. He had always been a pitiful thing. Why had she never seen that before? There was a hollow place inside her where her fear had been. â€Å"Take his horse,† Dany commanded Ser Jorah. Viserys gaped at her. He could not believe what he was hearing; nor could Dany quite believe what she was saying. Yet the words came. â€Å"Let my brother walk behind us back to the khalasar.† Among the Dothraki, the man who does not ride was no man at all, the lowest of the low, without honor or pride. â€Å"Let everyone see him as he is.† â€Å"No!† Viserys screamed. He turned to Ser Jorah, pleading in the Common Tongue with words the horsemen would not understand. â€Å"Hit her, Mormont. Hurt her. Your king commands it. Kill these Dothraki dogs and teach her.† The exile knight looked from Dany to her brother; she barefoot, with dirt between her toes and oil in her hair, he with his silks and steel. Dany could see the decision on his face. â€Å"He shall walk, Khaleesi,† he said. He took her brother's horse in hand while Dany remounted her silver. Viserys gaped at him, and sat down in the dirt. He kept his silence, but he would not move, and his eyes were full of poison as they rode away. Soon he was lost in the tall grass. When they could not see him anymore, Dany grew afraid. â€Å"Will he find his way back?† she asked Ser Jorah as they rode. â€Å"Even a man as blind as your brother should be able to follow our trail,† he replied. â€Å"He is proud. He may be too shamed to come back.† Jorah laughed. â€Å"Where else should he go? If he cannot find the khalasar, the khalasar will most surely find him. It is hard to drown in the Dothraki sea, child.† Dany saw the truth of that. The khalasar was like a city on the march, but it did not march blindly. Always scouts ranged far ahead of the main column, alert for any sign of game or prey or enemies, while outriders guarded their flanks. They missed nothing, not here, in this land, the place where they had come from. These plains were a part of them . . . and of her, now. â€Å"I hit him,† she said, wonder in her voice. Now that it was over, it seemed like some strange dream that she had dreamed. â€Å"Ser Jorah, do you think . . . he'll be so angry when he gets back . . . She shivered. â€Å"I woke the dragon, didn't I?† Ser Jorah snorted. â€Å"Can you wake the dead, girl? Your brother Rhaegar was the last dragon, and he died on the Trident. Viserys is less than the shadow of a snake.† His blunt words startled her. It seemed as though all the things she had always believed were suddenly called into question. â€Å"You . . . you swore him your sword . . . â€Å" â€Å"That I did, girl,† Ser Jorah said. â€Å"And if your brother is the shadow of a snake, what does that make his servants?† His voice was bitter. â€Å"He is still the true king. He is . . . â€Å" Jorah pulled up his horse and looked at her. â€Å"Truth now. Would you want to see Viserys sit a throne?† Dany thought about that. â€Å"He would not be a very good king, would he?† â€Å"There have been worse . . . but not many.† The knight gave his heels to his mount and started off again. Dany rode close beside him. â€Å"Still,† she said, â€Å"the common people are waiting for him. Magister Illyrio says they are sewing dragon banners and praying for Viserys to return from across the narrow sea to free them.† â€Å"The common people pray for rain, healthy children, and a summer that never ends,† Ser Jorah told her. â€Å"It is no matter to them if the high lords play their game of thrones, so long as they are left in peace.† He gave a shrug. â€Å"They never are.† Dany rode along quietly for a time, working his words like a puzzle box. It went against everything that Viserys had ever told her to think that the people could care so little whether a true king or a usurper reigned over them. Yet the more she thought on Jorah's words, the more they rang of truth. â€Å"What do you pray for, Ser Jorah?† she asked him. â€Å"Home,† he said. His voice was thick with longing. â€Å"I pray for home too,† she told him, believing it. Ser Jorah laughed. â€Å"Look around you then, Khaleesi.† But it was not the plains Dany saw then. It was King's Landing and the great Red Keep that Aegon the Conqueror had built. It was Dragonstone where she had been born. In her mind's eye they burned with a thousand lights, a fire blazing in every window. In her mind's eye, all the doors were red. â€Å"My brother will never take back the Seven Kingdoms,† Dany said. She had known that for a long time, she realized. She had known it all her life. Only she had never let herself say the words, even in a whisper, but now she said them for Jorah Mormont and all the world to hear. Ser Jorah gave her a measuring look. â€Å"You think not.† â€Å"He could not lead an army even if my lord husband gave him one,† Dany said. â€Å"He has no coin and the only knight who follows him reviles him as less than a snake. The Dothraki make mock of his weakness. He will never take us home.† â€Å"Wise child.† The knight smiled. â€Å"I am no child,† she told him fiercely. Her heels pressed into the sides of her mount, rousing the silver to a gallop. Faster and faster she raced, leaving Jorah and Irri and the others far behind, the warm wind in her hair and the setting sun red on her face. By the time she reached the khalasar, it was dusk. The slaves had erected her tent by the shore of a spring-fed pool. She could hear rough voices from the woven grass palace on the hill. Soon there would be laughter, when the men of her khas told the story of what had happened in the grasses today. By the time Viserys came limping back among them, every man, woman, and child in the camp would know him for a walker. There were no secrets in the khalasar. Dany gave the silver over to the slaves for grooming and entered her tent. It was cool and dim beneath the silk. As she let the door flap close behind her, Dany saw a finger of dusty red light reach out to touch her dragon's eggs across the tent. For an instant a thousand droplets of scarlet flame swam before her eyes. She blinked, and they were gone. Stone, she told herself. They are only stone, even Illyrio said so, the dragons are all dead. She put her palm against the black egg, fingers spread gently across the curve of the shell. The stone was warm. Almost hot. â€Å"The sun,† Dany whispered. â€Å"The sun warmed them as they rode.† She commanded her handmaids to prepare her a bath. Doreah built a fire outside the tent, while Irri and Jhiqui fetched the big copper tub—another bride gift—from the packhorses and carried water from the pool. When the bath was steaming, Irri helped her into it and climbed in after her. â€Å"Have you ever seen a dragon?† she asked as Irri scrubbed her back and Jhiqui sluiced sand from her hair. She had heard that the first dragons had come from the east, from the ShadowLands beyond Asshai and the islands of the JadeSea. Perhaps some were still living there, in realms strange and wild. â€Å"Dragons are gone, Khaleesi,† Irri said. â€Å"Dead,† agreed Jhiqui. â€Å"Long and long ago.† Viserys had told her that the last Targaryen dragons had died no more than a century and a half ago, during the reign of Aegon III, who was called the Dragonbane. That did not seem so long ago to Dany. â€Å"Everywhere?† she said, disappointed. â€Å"Even in the east?† Magic had died in the west when the Doom fell on Valyria and the Lands of the Long Summer, and neither spell-forged steel nor stormsingers nor dragons could hold it back, but Dany had always heard that the east was different. It was said that manticores prowled the islands of the JadeSea, that basilisks infested the jungles of Yi Ti, that spellsingers, warlocks, and aeromancers practiced their arts openly in Asshai, while shadowbinders and bloodmages worked terrible sorceries in the black of night. Why shouldn't there be dragons too? â€Å"No dragon,† Irri said. â€Å"Brave men kill them, for dragon terrible evil beasts. It is known.† â€Å"It is known,† agreed Jhiqui. â€Å"A trader from Qarth once told me that dragons came from the moon,† blond Doreah said as she warmed a towel over the fire. Jhiqui and Irri were of an age with Dany, Dothraki girls taken as slaves when Drogo destroyed their father's khalasar. Doreah was older, almost twenty. Magister Illyrio had found her in a pleasure house in Lys. Silvery-wet hair tumbled across her eyes as Dany turned her head, curious. â€Å"The moon?† â€Å"He told me the moon was an egg, Khaleesi,† the Lysene girl said. â€Å"Once there were two moons in the sky, but one wandered too close to the sun and cracked from the heat. A thousand thousand dragons poured forth, and drank the fire of the sun. That is why dragons breathe flame. One day the other moon will kiss the sun too, and then it will crack and the dragons will return.† The two Dothraki girls giggled and laughed. â€Å"You are foolish strawhead slave,† Irri said. â€Å"Moon is no egg. Moon is god, woman wife of sun. It is known.† â€Å"It is known,† Jhiqui agreed. Dany's skin was flushed and pink when she climbed from the tub. Jhiqui laid her down to oil her body and scrape the dirt from her pores. Afterward Irri sprinkled her with spiceflower and cinnamon. While Doreah brushed her hair until it shone like spun silver, she thought about the moon, and eggs, and dragons. Her supper was a simple meal of fruit and cheese and fry bread, with a jug of honeyed wine to wash it down. â€Å"Doreah, stay and eat with me,† Dany commanded when she sent her other handmaids away. The Lysene girl had hair the color of honey, and eyes like the summer sky. She lowered those eyes when they were alone. â€Å"You honor me, Khaleesi,† she said, but it was no honor, only service. Long after the moon had risen, they sat together, talking. That night, when Khal Drogo came, Dany was waiting for him. He stood in the door of her tent and looked at her with surprise. She rose slowly and opened her sleeping silks and let them fall to the ground. â€Å"This night we must go outside, my lord,† she told him, for the Dothraki believed that all things of importance in a man's life must be done beneath the open sky. Khal Drogo followed her out into the moonlight, the bells in his hair tinkling softly. A few yards from her tent was a bed of soft grass, and it was there that Dany drew him down. When he tried to turn her over, she put a hand on his chest. â€Å"No,† she said. â€Å"This night I would look on your face.† There is no privacy in the heart of the khalasar. Dany felt the eyes on her as she undressed him, heard the soft voices as she did the things that Doreah had told her to do. It was nothing to her. Was she not khaleesi? His were the only eyes that mattered, and when she mounted him she saw something there that she had never seen before. She rode him as fiercely as ever she had ridden her silver, and when the moment of his pleasure came, Khal Drogo called out her name. They were on the far side of the Dothraki sea when Jhiqui brushed the soft swell of Dany's stomach with her fingers and said, â€Å"Khaleesi, you are with child.† â€Å"I know,† Dany told her. It was her fourteenth name day.

Revolution in Communication

As a technology, it is called multimedia. As a revolution, it is the sum of many revolutions wrapped into one: A revolution in communication that combines the audio visual power of television, the publishing power of the printing press, and the interactive power of the computer. Multimedia is the convergence of these different professions, once thought independent of one another, coming together to form a new technological approach to the way information and ideas are shared. What will society look like under the evolving institutions of interactive multimedia technologies? Well, if the 1980†³s were a time for media tycoons, the 1990†³s will be for the self-styled visionaries. These gurus see a dawning digital age in which the humble television will mutate into a two-way medium for a vast amount of information and entertainment. We can expect to see: movies-on-demand, video games, databases, educational programming, home shopping, telephone services, telebanking, teleconferencing, even the complex simulations of virtual reality. This souped-up television will itself be a powerful computer. This, many believe, will be the world†s biggest media group, letting consumers tune into anything, anywhere, anytime. The most extraordinary thing about the multimedia boom, is that so many moguls are spending such vast sums to develop digital technologies, for the delivering of programs and services which are still largely hypothetical. So what is behind such grand prophecies? Primarily, two technological advances known as digitization (including digital compression), and fibre optics. Both are indispensable to the high-speed networks that will deliver dynamic new services to homes and offices. Digitization means translating information, either video, audio, or text, into ones and zeros, which make it easier to send, store, and manipulate. Compression squeezes this information so that more of it can be sent using a given amount of transmission capacity or bandwidth. Fibre-optic cables are producing a vast increase in the amount of bandwidth available. Made of glass so pure that a sheet of it 70 miles thick would be as clear as a window-pane, and the solitary strand of optical fibre the width of a human hair can carry 1,000 times as much information as all radio frequencies put together. This expansion of bandwidth is what is making two-way communication, or interactivity, possible. Neither digitization nor fibre optics is new. But it was only this year that America†s two biggest cable-TV owners, TCI and Time Warner , said they would spend $2 billion and $5 billion respectively to deploy both technologies in their systems, which together serve a third of America†s 60m cable homes. Soon, some TCI subscriptions will be wired to receive 500 channels rather than the customary 50; Time Warner will launch a trail full-service network in Florida with a range of interactive services. These two announcements signaled the start of a mad multimedia scramble in America, home market to many of the world†s biggest media, publishing, telecoms and computer companies, almost all of which have entered the fray. The reasons are simple: greed and fear: greed for new sources of revenue; fear that profits from current businesses may fall as a result of reregulation or cut-throat competition. Multimedia has already had a profound affect on how these businesses interact with one another. Mergers such as Time Warner, Turner Broadcasting, and Paramount have set the stage. These companies continue the race to be the first to lay solid infrastructure, and set new industry standards. Following in the shadows will be mergers between: software, film, television, publishing, and telephone industries, each trying to gain market share in the emerging market. So far, most firms have rejected the hostile takeovers that marked the media business in the 1980s. Instead, they have favored an array of alliances and joint ventures akin to Japan†s loose-knit Keiretsu business groupings. TCI†s boss, John Malone, evokes â€Å"octopuses with their hands in each other†s pockets-where one starts and the other stops will be hard to decide.† These alliances represent a model of corporate structure which many see as mere marriages of convenience, in which none wants to miss out on any futuristic markets. One may wonder how this race for market share and the merging of these corporations will affect them personally. Well, at this point and time, it is hard to say. However, there is some thought in the direction we are headed. The home market, which was stated earlier, has its origins based around early pioneers such as Atari, Nintindo, and Sega. These companies started with simple games, but as technology increased, it began to open up new doors. The games themselves are becoming more sophisticated and intelligent and are now offering some of the first genres capable of attracting and holding an adult audience. Just around the corner looms the promise of interactive television, which threatens to turn the standard American couch potato into the newly rejuvenated couch commando. Through interactive television, which will actually be a combination of the telephone, computer, and television, you will have access to shopping, movies, and other types of information on demand. As this technology increases, it will give way to a form that is known as virtual reality. Imagine, with the use of headgear, goggles, and sensory gloves, being able to actually feel and think you are in another place. For instance, going shopping at a mall could be done in the privacy of your own living room, by just strapping on your headgear. Another break through in the home market is video telephony. These are telephone systems that also broadcast video images. Imagine being able to communicate instantly with voice, picture, and text with a business colleague or a loved one thousands of miles away. Interactive multimedia systems promise to revolutionize education. In a complex world of constant change, where knowledge becomes obsolete every few years, education can no longer be something that one aquires during youth to serve for an entire lifetime. Rather, education must focus on instilling the ability to continue learning throughout life. Fortunately, the information-technology revolution is creating a new form of electronic, interactive education that should blossom into a lifelong learning system that allows almost anyone to learn almost anything from anywhere, at anytime. The key technology in future education is interactive multimedia. The purpose of multimedia in education as in so many other multimedia applications, is to: enhance the transfer of information, encourage participation, stimulate the senses and enhance information retention. Multimedia uses a powerful combination of earlier technologies that constitutes an extraordinary advance in the capability of machines to assist the educational process. Interactive multimedia combines computer hardware, software, and peripheral equipment to provide a rich mixture of text, graphics, sound, animation, full-motion video, data, and other information. Although multimedia has been technically feasible for many years, only recently has it become a major focus for commercial development. Interactive multimedia systems can serve a variety of purposes but their great power resides in highly sophisticated software that employs scientifically based educational methods to guide the student through a path of instruction individually tailored to suit the special needs of each person. As instruction progresses and intelligent systems are used, the system learns about the student†s strengths and weaknesses and then uses this knowledge to make the learning experience fit the need of that particular student. Interactive multimedia has several key advantages. First, students receive training when and where they need it. An instructor does not have to be present, so students can select the time best suited to their personal schedules. Second, students can adjourn training at any point in the lesson and return to it later. Third, the training is highly effective because it is based on the most powerful principles of individualized learning. Students find the program interesting, so they stick with it. Retention of the material learned is excellent. Fourth, the same videodisk equipment can be used to support a variety of training paths. Last, both the training and the testing are objectively and efficiently measured and tracked. Educational systems of this type, offered by IBM under the product labeled Ultimedia, engage students in an interactive learning experience that mixes color movie, bold graphics, music, voice narration, and text; for instance, the program Columbus allows students to relive the great navigator†s voyages and explore the New World as it looked when Columbus first saw it. The ability to control the learning experience makes the student an active rather than a passive learner. Other common systems include Sim City, Carmen San Diego, and a variety of popular multimedia games created by Broderbound Softwarek, one of the biggest companies in this new field. Rather than old drill and kill forms of computerized instruction that bore students, this new entertaining form of education is far more effective precisely because kids get totally immersed in an exciting experience. Classroom computers with multimedia capabilities seem to have sky-rocketed in every faucet of the education arena. From pre-schoolers to college students, learning adapting to this multimedia craze was not hard to do. Teachers and Professors alike share in this technology to plan out their curricular schedules and school calendar. Most will agree that classroom computers seem to have a positive effect on students of the 90†³s. As schools and universities become more technology driven, there will be an even bigger plea for more multimedia enhancements. The 1980†³s witnessed the introduction and widespread use of personal computers at all levels of schooling. During the decade the number of computers used in U.S. elementary and secondary schools increased from under 100,000 to over 2.5 million. A majority of students now use computers and computer software sometime during the school-year, either to learn about computers or as a tool for learning other subjects. By the end of the decade, the typical school had 1 computer per 20 students, a ration that computer educators feel is still not high enough to affect classroom learning as much as books and classroom conversion do.

Talent Management Issues Relevant to the Field of IHRM Assignment

Talent Management Issues Relevant to the Field of IHRM - Assignment Example Therefore, the management must take measures to retain the asset through effective talent management. In this respect, organizations need to prepare their potential employees for the leadership position by exposing them to different business cultures and challenges. The objective of the study is to critically review the article written by Collings & Mellahi (2009) with the title â€Å"Strategic talent management: A review and research agenda†. The study also aims to identify issues related to talent management in relation to the context of International Human Resource Management (IHRM) with reference to the findings from the above-mentioned article. According to Collings and Mellahi (2009), talent management plays a vital role to drive the performance of the organization both at the group level and the individual level1. Talent is directly related to human assets. Performance of the employees contributes towards the accomplishments of the long-term goals and short-term objectives2. Talent management is the procedure to attract productive employees, to identify the right potential possessed by the workforce, to grease their potentials for better results and to take measures for retaining the assets over the long run3. However, organization s should understand that only attracting the employees would not suffice the sustainability and productivity goals; identifying the strengths and then grooming them accordingly is also important4. Talent management methodologies help in analyzing the performance of the employees. As stated by Collings and Mellahi (2009), in the recessionary context maximization of the talent present in the existing employees holds important priority among global organizations.  

Dissertation proposal (The Level of Interest within Generation Y Essay

Dissertation proposal (The Level of Interest within Generation Y towards Social network Marketing) - Essay Example Background of Research Questions Social Network Marketing has gained prominence in the last decade as more and more companies are marketing primarily through social networking sites. The main purpose of social networking sites is to connect users with one another. As the internet age blooms with every passing year, social networking has become the most widely used communication tool by users around the world. ‘Compete.com (2008), a Web traffic analysis company, reported that the largest online social networking site (as of November 2008) was MySpace, with 56 million unique visitors per month, closely followed by Facebook, with 49 million unique visitors’ (Trusov, Bucklin and Pauwels, 2009). This addiction towards social networking presents marketers with a good opportunity of reaching towards consumers. Through social networks, brands develop a personality and provide a forum for the users to interact with the brand, thus making way for a more informal form of marketing. With the saturation in market that most industries are now facing, it becomes increasing hard to capture the attention of the consumers who have become cynical towards advertising and marketing in general. Social networking sites allow consumers to share their opinions, ideas and reviews about products and services. On account of this, social networking sites support word-of-mouth, which is the most effective form of advertising and specifically for the younger generation. With advertisers taking full use of their creative license, consumers have become wary of products advertising impossibility shiny long hair and a perfect social life. They simply do not believe these advertisements. This research will aim to uncover the connection that Generation Y has with social networking sites. With the advertising world changing at a very fast pace, it is important that marketers are able to connect with the Generation Y through their preferred platform. This research provides a way forward to marketers. Literature Review ‘Today’s Generation Y, encompassing individuals born between 1980 and 1995, represents an era of teens and young adults who grew up with technology and are among the most avid users of social networking’ (Rutledge, 2008) . Social Networking sites have become part of the life of Generation Y. As important as it is to have residential addresses, Generation Y considers it equally important to have a social networking address. Given the popularity of social networking sites among Generation Y, organizations have begun exploring advertising on these sites. ‘Social Networking is just one of the many consumer technologies, including blogs, wikis and virtual worlds, to cross over to the corporate world’ (Smith and Salvendy, 2009). But the advertising content must differ since Generation Y has become used to the traditional advertising techniques. They tend to tune out the advertising of women falling around men with just one spray of a perfume. To reach Generation Y, organizations have to more honest and direct in their advertising techniques (Garland, 2007). Generation Y is more of a rebel and has shaped their opinions and views around the opinions of views of their own peers. Parents have not been the guiding figures in the lives of Generation Y since they were raised in a time when both parents

Security Management ( Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Security Management ( - Essay Example All in all a complete security picture has been painted through this report. Security in the current scenario of ever-changing geo-political situation is the major talking point of any high profile event. This is due to the nature of damage any security lapses bring in such an event, both financial and moral. The report describes a detailed insight of security arrangements made for a high profile event. The event under discussion is a family festival in the capital of a small yet important country named Pakistan. The festival, takes place on the eve of Christmas, many dignitaries including the members of the American conciliate are invited. Hence the need for maximum security arrangements has been felt and a team of security consultants have been called in from the U.S.A. The detail of the event along with the security arrangements made to tackle any kind of a contingency has been chalked out in this report. Also, features like VIP movement and other factors have been highlighted. All in all, this report outlines all the measures that have been taken for the smooth running of this family gala, which takes place in a country where the security conditions are not ideal. Before coming to the actual arrangements, it is very important to know the gravity of the situation and the kind of the event that has to be handled. Only then one can understand the need for security measurements needed at the venue. As briefly stated before, it is a carnival for Christian families living in the federal capital of Pakistan. As Pakistan is a Muslim country, this is not a holiday season and therefore normal life routines are not halted for Christmas. This festival is an invite only event with many VIPs on the guest like the ambassadors of U.K and U.S. Since the invites have been sent already, the background check on all the guests has been carried out using the help of local law enforcing agencies. Any

International marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International marketing - Essay Example Similarly, the increase in the competitiveness nature of international markets calls for improved quality and advancement in the production techniques (Ronkainen, 2005, p.97-8). The entry strategies in an international category involves making decisions on the goals and objectives of the firm, choice of the products/services, market penetration modes, and performance monitoring and control systems which are deemed appropriate for the market. After evaluating its potential, strengths, capacities, and limitations, a corporation then figures going multinational. Exploring an international market with more promising potential involves market screening of all the potential markets. The screening exercise is conducted based on economic, cultural, and political factors which have the potential of affecting operations of the firm in the foreign market (Keegan, & Schlegelmilch, 2011, p.37). Besides, geographical factors and demographic variables must be given close attention. These include lo cation, composition of the potential target consumers (based on gender, age, income, culture, and family structures), political and economic environment (covering from legal regulations, duties and taxes, to consumer protection standards), and market characteristics. Being the fundamental factors under investigation, size, level of competition, and distribution agents with the marketing environment must be valued (Root, 2009, p.56). Otherwise, if these factors are not considered, then the firm will not succeed in the foreign market as it will fail to command the much needed market share. The selection of an overseas market is conducted in five stages. The first stage entails conducting an investigation on the domestic market regulations and management preferences. The second stage involves conducting an initial entry assessment programs. The third and the fourth steps are conducting a survey on the competitiveness and market responses respectively. The final step in exploring foreig n market entails a detailed analysis of international trade-off possibilities (Wolfgang, 2008, p.67). After the completion of market selection, a firm then plans her entry strategy. A number of entry strategy options are made available for firms to choose from. Firms may either choose for enter the foreign market through distributors or agents or through direct methods such as partnerships, alliances, direct sales promotion, or agreements (Johansson, 2007, p.75). The method of market entry adopted by the foreign firm venturing in a new market significantly affects the outcome and success of the firm. These entry strategies may be undertaken in form of licensing, joint venture, exporting, and direct investments. However, independent of the entry strategy chosen by a firm, their access to the market is limited. Though using intermediaries and agents results into a fasters and greater command of the market, it is relatively costly and very bureaucratic (Pan, & Tse, 2007, p.87). This im plies that the venturing/investing firm has no direct control of the market and neither has any direct link with the customers/consumers. On the other hand, direct entry methods are better in building personalized market understanding, it is limited with the fact that the foreign firm will not have any control of the ma

Reaction paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 19

Reaction paper - Essay Example This was a bunker designed for war yet Germans managed to creatively put a semblance of home. On a larger scale, this can be reflected in the products that they make which reflects utmost creativity. There is a famous saying in German that goes "Wenn schon, denn schon". It meant that if there is something that is worth doing, it is worth doing right. In short, Germans are perfectionist with work and do not do half baked and half hazard jobs and this complements their creativity that led them to produce cars that is a symbol of luxury and creativity. There is another German clichà © that goes "Ordnung muß sein!" It meant order and everything should be done by the rules. As a result, they are conscious about time that being late among Germans is unthinkable and this reflects how they put value to orderliness. In a way Americans share the same creativity, thoroughness and orderliness with Germans but not on the same level. Gleaning on the example given about cars, Americans has Ford and General Motors which is not really at par with German Mercedez Benz and

Running the Government without Debt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Running the Government without Debt - Essay Example However, what is equally disturbing is that the US government moved away from surplus budgets during the latter period and never even gave it a rethink. There has been a marked tendency to succumb to populist agendas and vested interests which marked the post-surplus era in the US economy. In most cases, ‘popular sentiment’ is but a facade for narrow political gains. This era has seen a marked increase in spending, not only for new ventures but also for cutting down unnecessary and wasteful expenditure. While running a government without debt is likened to running a company, we conveniently forget that a company does so out of a lack of choice. No company can afford or receive the luxury of unlimited credit and ultimately should plough its profits back into the system. Only in the rarest of rare cases can a company expect a bailout package. However, such measures are time bound and come at a price. Hence, a balanced or surplus deficit is the only way out for a sound fina ncial system. 1. Curtailing Big Spending The three areas that can directly impact federal spending are defense, social security, health care and interest on debt. Striking at these revenue guzzlers will eliminate the need for deficit budgets. As the saying goes, a penny saved is a penny earned. Defense seems to be one area of spending where the only way is the way up. After the end of the cold war era, the need for maintaining massive armaments has become irrelevant. The US, with its relative isolation from Europe, Asia and Africa does not require increased spending in arms either in the long or short term. Intervention in foreign countries should be brought down to the barest minimum. Instead of unilateral incursions into certain nations, the US should focus on diplomatic initiatives as a measure to reform them. This would keep public anger at check by reducing losses and reverses suffered by the military abroad. The use of the armed forces should be restricted to peace keeping and for ensuring that humanitarian aid reaches the intended target. The nation’s nuclear arsenal should be used only as a deterrent and not to encourage an arms race among states. Social Security is another area where reforms are called for. The ceiling on payroll tax should be removed so that income over the threshold limit can be brought under the tax net. Gradually raising this rate can cover the shortfall in this area over the course of time. With a graying population, one should take a serious note of the retirement age. This should be gradually and progressively raised to 75 to compensate for the additional expense incurred by maintaining the present retirement age. Likewise, we need to identify the extent of retirees who are affluent enough to either be taxed or have their benefits curtailed. Health Care is the third area which can do with cost cuts. As Cox (April 5, 2011) reports in CNBC, there is a need to shift the burden on Medicare and Medicaid spending from the pati ents, and thereby the state to the providers of health care i.e. hospitals. As in the case of social security, the age for eligibility to Medicare can also be increased from the present 65 to reduce costs. Debt Interest is the area that could seriously affect the debt levels over time. With more public debt owned by foreigners, interest payments leave the country rather than circulate within the nation if US citizens received the interest on debt. 2. Increasing the Revenue Directly increasing the revenue by

Love Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Love - Assignment Example In addition, the program seeks to expand the leadership abilities of individuals through adoption of programs that are focused at bringing change within the community. The program covers education institutions including colleges and universities. Chesapeake Bay Program awards an average of $1 million. In addition, the grant funds 20% of applications. Depending with the financial requirements of a project, Chesapeake Bay Program offers the funds for one year. Individual or institutions in need of grants can access the funds 6 to 8 months after the issuance of the request for proposal. The grant requires that a cost share of 25% of the total costs as stipulated by the project budget (2012-2013 Guidelines for Financial Support Grants). Online or mail applications can be used to apply for Chesapeake Bay Program grant. Source Reduction Assistance Grant Program is another key source of funds. The program covers clubs and organizations, communities groups and local organizations that aim at eradicating the toxic substances used by young people. With an annul award of between $1.1 million-$1.7 million, the program funds 15% of the grant applicant. In addition, projects are funded in annual bases. According to Source Reduction Assistance Grant Program, recipients of the grant should provide 5% of the allowable project cost that can be inform of in-kind contributions such as equipments or in form of cash (Samuel, 2007). Application for Source Reduction Assistance grant can be done online or through mail after which the successful applicants receive Grants between May and

Behavioural difficulties with childern (in classroom) Essay

Behavioural difficulties with childern (in classroom) - Essay Example It seems clear that good behavior is easy to maintain if the school and other teachers in the school establish a consistent approach to misbehavior (McCormack 2006). I agree with the statement completely and have found that if teachers get together to establish certain ground rules, the overall discipline level of the entire school can be raised significantly. In my own experience I have tried to ensure that the discipline maintained in the class is equal to the level maintained by other top teachers. Of course in certain cases discipline issues can means a lot more than simple misbehavior of willfulness. McCarthy (2006) suggests that certain discipline problems could come about if the child appears to be emotionally disturbed. While this may certainly be the case, in my experience I have not come across a situation which demands the use of a facility like the Multi Agency Center mentioned in the article. However, it is good to know that such facilities exist and I certainly plan to make use of these if the need arises. I did face a situation where it came to my mind that a child was facing some emotional problems but when I talked to the child in a one on one session, we were able to come to an agreement whereby she promised to improve her behavior and I saw a marked change in her since that. The use of technology has also been recommended to keep children occupied and reduce discipline issues (Pendleton 2006). However, in my opinion this takes the focus away from the real issue. While technology is useful, I find that simply talking to the children about discipline issues and explaining how the collective experience for them is reduced in quality through the misbehavior of some children is more effective. This technique is also recommended for the improvement in the outlook of the entire school (Phillips, 2006). Finally, in certain extreme situations, a teacher may be forced to use restrictive physical means to intervene with pupils

The throne of Saudi Arabia Essay Example for Free

The throne of Saudi Arabia Essay The throne of Saudi Arabia fell vacant in 1982, following Khalid bin Abdul Aziz’s assassination in 1982. King Fahd took the reins and was the King of the Saudi kingdom until death in 2005. His half-brother, Abdullah officially came to power the same year, although he has been ruling the country since Fahd’s incapacitating stroke in 1996. Average lifespan of a Saudi ruler is approximately 78 years. The present ruler King Abdullah is the eldest, while King Khalid was the youngest. Women have never ruled Saudi Arabia; all of the Kings of Saudi Arabia have been sons of King Abd al-Aziz Al Saud, the founder of modern Saudi Arabia. Inheritance has been the common way of ascendance to power, while natural death particularly due to heart attack has been the reason for leaders’ fall from power Algeria Chadli Bendjedid, President (Feb 9 1979 Jan 11 1992) Mohamed Boudiaf, Chairman of the High Council of State (Jan 14 1992 June 29 1992) Ali Kafi, Chairman of the High Council of State (June 29 1992 to Jan 31 1994) Liamine Zeroual, Head of State (Jan 31 1994 Apr 27 1999) Abdelaziz Bouteflika, President (Since Apr 27 1999) Algeria in the 1980s was under the one-party rule of President Chadli Bendjedid. Opposition from religious parties forced the country’s first multi-party elections in 1991. The military intervened to stop religious political parties from ruling the country and Mohamed Boudiaf was appointed the Chairman of the High Council of State in 1992. Following his assassination, Ali Kafi became his successor in the same year. In 1994, Liamine Zeroual took over as the Head of state and was in power till 1999. Civil unrest led to the Algerian Civil War followed by a military-backed government to ascend into power in 1999. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been the President of Algeria since 1999. The average age of Algerian leaders is about 68 years, while Boudiaf was the eldest leader being 73 years when he died. Libya Muammar Muhammad al-Gaddafi, Military Colonel (Since 2 Mar 1979) The power in Libya is controlled by Colonel Al-Gaddafi, the leader of the Revolutionary Command Council as well as the unconstitutional head of state. He established the General Peoples Congress (GPC) to reform the political system, thereby vesting only theoretical control and retaining absolute control over Libya (El Fathaly and Palmer 529). Al-Gaddafi is now 68 years old and his rose to power through a revolution governed by Islamic socialism. Egypt Mohamed Hosni Mubarak, President (Since 14 October 1981) The Republic of Egypt follows a multi-party presidential system. Mubarak has been elected as the President for the past five times in elections since 1981, since Egypt has conventionally practiced single-candidate elections. He is now 53 years old and has promised to reform the country’s election laws for the next election. Jordan Hussein bin Talal, King (11 Aug 1952 – 7 Feb 1999) Abdullah bin al Hussein, King (Since 7 Feb 1999) Abdullah bin al Hussein inherited the throne of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1999, following the death of his father Hussein bin Talal. Abdullah is now 46 years of age, while his father was 64 years old when he passed away. Syria Hafez al-Assad, President (13 Nov March 1970- 10 June 2000) Bashar al-Assad (Since 10 July 2000) Hafez al-Assad was actually the Defense Minister in the Baath Regime. After the Black September incident, his popularity rose and he claimed power through a military coup to become president. He ruled Syria for 30 straight years until his death; Hafez was 70 years old when he died. The minimum age in the constitution was amended to facilitate his son Bashar becoming the next President. Afghanistan Mohammad Najibullah (30 Nov1987 – 16 Apr 1992) Abdul Rahim Hatef (16 Apr 1992 – 28 Apr 1992) Sibghatullah Mojaddedi (28 Apr 1992 – 28 June 1992) Burhanuddin Rabbani (28 June 1992 – 27 Sep 1996) Mohammed Omar, Islamic Emirate President (27 Sept 1996 – 13 Nov 2001) Burhanuddin Rabbani, Islamic Transitional State President (27 Sep 1996 – 22 Dec 2001) Hamid Karzai, Islamic Transitional State Chairman and President (22 Dec 2001 – 7 Dec 2004) Hamid Karzai, Islamic Republic President (Since Dec 2004) Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989 caused them to back up former Afghan spy Najibullah as the President. However, after the breakup of USSR and withdrawal of support, the Taliban gradually rose to power and enforced religious fundamentalist rule. Following the World Trade Center bombing, America invaded Afghanistan and power was transferred back to the Mujahideen led by Rabbani. Elections were held in 2002 and Karzai was elected President. Iraq Saddam Hussein, President (1979 2003) Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer, Interim President (9 April 2003 – 28 June 2004) Jalal Talabani (Since 6 April 2005) Saddam ascended to power by either arresting or murdering his rival leaders. He was 66 years old when has captured. After that, the Coalition Provisional Authority nominated Ghazi as the interim president, after which Talabani was elected president. Iran Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Supreme Leader (3 Dec 1979 3 June 1989) Grand Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader (Since 4 June 1989) The Islamic Republic of Iran was formed in 1979 following the Islamic revolution; Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, being highest ranking religious and political authority, became the Supreme Leader of Iran. Ruhollah Khomeini was 87 years old when he died, and Ali Khamenei was elected as the next Supreme by the Assembly of Experts. Israel Yitzhak Navon (19 April 1978 5 May 1983) Chaim Herzog (5 May 1983 13 May 1993) Ezer Weizman (13 May 1993 13 July 2000) Moshe Katsav (1 August 2000 1 July 2007) Shimon Peres (Since 15 July 2007) In Israel, the President is elected by either an absolute or simple majority in the parliament. Yitzhak Navon is now 84 years old and the oldest surviving Israeli President. Yemen Ali Abdullah Saleh (22 May 1990) He has been the first President of unified Yemen since 1990 and is 60 years old now. Kuwait Emir Jaber III Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (31 Dec 1977 – 15 Jan 2006) Emir Saad I Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah (15 Jan 2006 – 24 Jan 2006) Emir Sabah IV Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (Since 29 Jan 2006) Lebanon Bachir Gemayel (23 August 1982 – 14 September 1982) Amine Gemayel (23 September 1982 – 22 September 1988) Prime Minister Michel Aoun (22 September 1988 – 13 October 1990) Prime Minister Selim al-Hoss (22 September 1988 – 5 November 1989) Rene Moawad (5 November – 22 November 1989) Elias Hrawi (24 November 1989 – 24 November 1998) Emile Lahoud (24 November 1998 – 23 November 2007) Fouad Siniora (Since 24 November 2007) Mauritania Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Louly, Head of State (June 1979 4 Jan 1980) Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla, Head of State (4 Jan 1980 to 12 Dec 1984) Maaouya Ould SidAhmed Taya, Head of State (12 Dec 1984 to 18 Apr 1992) Maaouya Ould SidAhmed Taya, Head of State (18 Apr 1992 to 3 Aug 2005) Ely Ould Mohamed Vall, Chairman (3 Aug 2005 to 19 Apr 2007) Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi, President (Since 19 April 2007) UAE Sheikh Zayid ibn Sultan Al Nuhayyan (2 Dec 1971 2 Nov 2004) Sheikh Maktum ibn Rashid Al Maktum (2 Nov 2004 3 Nov 2004) Sheikh Khalifa ibn Zayid Al Nuhayyan (Since 3 Nov 2004) Sudan Gaafar Nimeiry, Head of State (25 May 1969 6 April 1985) Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab, Head of State (6 April 1985 6 May 1986) Ahmad al-Mirghani, Head of State (6 May 1986 30 June 1989) Omar al-Bashir, President (30 June 1989 16 Oct 1993) Tunisia Habib Bourguiba (25 July 1957 7 Nov 1987) Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (Since 7 Nov 1987) Turkey Kenan Evren (9 Nov 1982 – 9 Nov 1989) Turgut Ozal (9 Nov 1989 – 17 April 1993) Suleyman Demirel (16 May 1993 – 16 May 2000) Ahmet Necdet Sezer (16 May 2000 28 Aug 2007) Abdullah Gul (Since 28 Aug 2007) Morocco King Hassan II (1961–1999) King Mohammed VI (Since 1999) Oman Qaboos ibn Said (Since 23 July 1970) Pakistan Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (16 Sep 1978 17 Aug 1988) Ghulam Ishaq Khan (17 Aug 1988 -18 July 1993) Wasim Sajjad (18 July 1993 14 Nov 1993) Farooq Leghari (14 Nov 1993 2 Dec 1997) Wasim Sajjad (2 Dec 1997 1 Jan 1998) Muhammad Rafiq Tarar (1 Jan 1998 20 June 2001) Pervez Musharraf (Since 20 June 2001) The trend in rising to power in most of the countries mentioned above is through brute force, inheritance, revolution or religious fundamentalism. The concept of real democracy is seldom prevalent in these countries; people of these countries have very little control over their future. The leaders are usually old and past their physical and mental prime. Unlike the Western world, women are usually not considered for such higher positions. Works Cited Page El Fathaly, Omar, and Palmer, Monte. â€Å"Political Development and Social Change in Libya†. The American Political Science Review, Vol. 75, No. 2 (Jun. , 1981), pp. 529-530.

East West Culture Differences Cultural Studies Essay

East West Culture Differences Cultural Studies Essay In todays global business environment, with the increase in international business and in foreign investment, more and more of us are required to understand people coming from countries and cultures different from our own, so the impact of difference between Oriental and Occidental cultures on international trade becomes increasingly exposed. Therefore, this article makes multidimensional analyses of these matters arising out of cultural differences in transnational commerce. International trade is the exchange of goods and services among different countries. Owing to various socio-cultures, enormous differences exist in commercial culture of nations. The East and the West are the two mainstream cultures in the world; meanwhile, the gaps of them are obvious, appearing in values, conventions, languages, consumption patterns, social organizations and structures, etc. This paper aims at discussing the cultural differences that are faced in todays commercial transaction in the world and evolving appropriate measures to deal with those.    Key words: East-West cultural differences; international trade; international communication 1. Introduction This section is an introduction, which gives a general account of the importance of cross-cultural communication, purpose of this thesis, and the significance of the thesis. 1.1 The importance of being aware of the East-West cultural differences In our world of expanding technology and shrinking geography, people of different cultures have increasing frequency of contact and need for effective communication on a daily basis. Speaking a different language is an obvious obstacle to intercultural communication, but a greater and more difficult hurdle is to speak a different culture. Even though we may learn the words, the grammar, and the recognizable pronunciation of a language, we may still not know how to navigate around the greater obstacles to communication that are presented by cultural difference. The cultures of the East and the West really distinguish each other a lot. This is because the culture systems are two separate systems on the whole. Due to the far distance and the steep areas between the East and West, the two cultures seldom communicate until recent centuries. So they grew up totally in their own ways with almost no interference from the other. There are so many differences in culture between the East and West. However, there is a trend that the culture in both countries has been mixture. There are problems may be caused by our failure to recognize cultural differences. Nowadays the world is becoming much more mobile than ever before. With the powerful modern transportation tools like airplane, people can travel to other counties just in a few hours. Under this circumstance, it is not uncommon to find some problems caused by the ignorance of cultural differences. Apart from different languages (and you will benefit greatly if you can learn to understand, speak or write some of them), each country has its own social systems and laws and ways of implementing them to resolve problems and disputes during international businesses. In addition, the diversity is reflected in management philosophy, operating procedure, marketing methods of merchants and the specific trading activities. In conclusion, to be successful and skillful as an international trader it is important to recognize and accept that there are differences between the East and the West. 1.2 Purpose of the study Entitled On the East-West Cultural Differences and the Influence on the International Trade, this thesis endeavors to probe into the nature and practical method to give a description of various kinds of cultural differences, their impact upon international commerce, and how to deal with the difficulties appearing in the business communication. Eastern people often feel confident that they know quite a bit about western culture. In fact, they may have seen many western films, may eat at KFC regularly, may know more about the National Basketball Association or about current popular music than many Americans, may speak quite fluent English, but that does not necessarily mean that they know western culture the way a Westerner knows it. It doesnt mean they know the cultural grammar or can swim in those cultural waters. It doesnt mean they can avoid miscommunication or even conflict during communicating. Just as Wolfson points out, In interacting with foreigners, native speakers tend to be rather tolerant of errors in pronunciation or syntax. In contrast, violations of rules of speaking are often interpreted as bad manners, since the native speaker is unlikely to be aware of sociolinguistic relating. (Wolfson,1983: 62). The thesis attempts to make out a system and makes comprehensive study of the pervasive culture by means of definitions, classifications to improve the culture awareness. From some researchers perspective, culture is like an iceberg in the ocean, what we see and feel such as artifacts, clothing, was the surface part of iceberg, this part is easily to be recognized, while the hidden part of iceberg such as values and beliefs which are not immediately observable and felt, rather, hidden behind the daily verbal and nonverbal communication, and directs and regulates peoples speech and behavior. The assumption of the identification of this category is that different areas in the world are characterized by different values and features. 1.3 Significance of the study Knowledge about cultures, both general and specific, provides insight into the learned behaviors of a group. It helps the learner to gain awareness of what makes a people unique. The factors are its customs and traditions, values and beliefs, attitudes and concepts, hierarchies and roles, time and space relations, and verbal and non-verbal communication processes. Information gained in cross-culture studies will enable businessmen to become more cosmopolitan, to cope more effectively abroad, to reduce stress and resolve conflict more readily in the international area. Now with the Open Policy, many enterprises are involved in international trade. Those engaged in the import-export trade, depending on their understanding and skills in cross-cultural relations, can either advance or hamper their sales and exchanges. Transcultural studies benefit businessmen as follows: Foster interaction, good will and customer relations, as well as business and profits. In a competitive society, the global businessman should function like an intercultural researcher seeking various ways to establish good relationship with his partners whose behaviors are strongly affected by cultural, social, personal and psychological factors. But the cultural factors exert the broadest and deepest influence on them. Offer better understanding of both domestic and international markets. To be successful in international business, a good market research project requires as much careful planning as a well-designed product. Market research must allow for cultural differences in a foreign market. For example, orange juice is not a breakfast drink in France; Middle Easterners prefer spicy toothpaste; the Japanese like rice and tuna for breakfast. These cultural differences will help one make a successful marketing decision. Provide insight relative to organizational culture and personal behavior. Intercultural study offers us better understanding of the culture in which one is going to work. For example, one aspect of American culture is that people must work hard to accomplish their objectives. We can see this in the corporate culture of Microsoft, while Chinese tend to work together and accomplish a project step by step with explicit hierarchical relationship. Help one to gain a better sense of self and cultural heritage for more effective intercultural interactions. In order to create cultural synergistic solutions to problems lying in international business, a global businessman must know his culture and business practice to deal with different partners with different cultures. In a word, cross-cultural study offers better international relationships, which are bound to be enhanced when management, sales, and technical personnel can deal with cultural differences within the world market place. 2. The difference between east culture and west culture Success on international business journey depends significantly on understanding culture and appreciating how profoundly values, attitudes and behaviors are shaped by it. Unfortunately, culture is a complex phenomenon, The understanding of which is aided neither by the diffuse use of the term in everyday conversation nor by the wealth of definitions in current use. At the very outset, we face the challenge of developing an understanding of culture that both captures its essence and will serve as a practical guide to the broad spectrum of cultural diversity. 2.1 A brief introduction to culture The word culture often brings up more problems than it involves. So far, culture has been defined in many ways by a wide range of people from diverse backgrounds. Culture, according to Robert Kohls, the former Director  of Training and Development for the United States  Information Agency, is an integrated system of learned  behavior patterns that are characteristic of the members  of any given society, the total way of life of particular  groups of people. It includes everything that a group of  people thinks, says, does, and makes-its customs,  language, material artifacts and shared systems of  attitudes and feelings. Culture is learned and transmitted  from generation to generation. It is not identical with  the genetic heritage that may differentiate one group of  people from another. These differences in shared  systems of attitudes and feelings are one of those more  subtle areas of difference that foreigners experience  when they leave home.  Cul ture affects peoples ways of thinking and their  views of the world. Every culture has its distinct  characteristics that make it different from every other  culture. Some differences are quite evident (e.g.  language, religion, political organization, etc.). However, in a word, culture generally refers to the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws morals, customs, habits, and capabilities acquired by individuals who interact in a specific area of society. Others  can be so subtle that while foreign visitors may be  vaguely aware of them, making adjustments is a  complex process and one may remain uncomfortable  and off balance for quite some time. 2.2 Causes for culture differences The cultures of the East and the West really distinguish  each other by a lot. This is because the culture systems  are two separate systems on the whole.  The origin of the eastern cultures is mainly from two  countries: China and India. Both of the two cultures are  gestated by rivers: the Yellow River in China and the  Hindu River in India. These two cultures were  developed for several thousand years and formed their  own styles. Then in Dang Dynasty of China, the  Chinese culture gradually went overseas to Japan,  mixed into the Japanese society and shaped the  Japanese culture nowadays. Though a bit different from  the Chinese one, it belongs to the same system. When the two mother rivers gave birth to the eastern  culture, another famous culture was brought up on the  Mesopotamian Plain-the Mesopotamian Civilization.  This civilization later on developed into the cultures of  the Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. And these two  are well-known as the base of the European culture.  Like the Chinese culture, the European one also crossed  waters. When the colonists of England settled down in  America, their culture went with them over the Atlantic  Ocean. So the American culture is similar to the  European one.  At the same time, the difference of the language  systems adds to the cultural differences. In the East,  most languages belong to the pictographic language  while the Western languages are mostly based on the  Latin system.  Other factors like human race difference counts as  well. But whats more, due to the far distance and the  steep areas between the East and West, the two cultures  seldom commu nicate until recent centuries. So they  grew up totally in their own ways with almost no  interference from the other. 2.3 The Role of Culture in Business With the development of globalization, cross-culture  communication is indispensable to an open society in  which we live today. Therefore, cultural differences are  everywhere. The cultures between the East and the West  are distinguished by a rather large scale. It means not  only the opinions or ways of thinking are different, but  how do people behave in daily life is also not the same,  sometimes may even the opposite. This paper will first  probe into the causes for cultural differences and then  some of the typical examples to illustrate the cultural  difference between east and west, finally, ways to fit in  different cultures. What role does culture play and can it be a positive one? A manager in a Swedish pharmaceutical firm described what happened when a multicultural team was put together. Product design was traditionally carried out at our Stockholm headquarters. Once, by accident or design, we brought in an international team to discuss the design of a new allergy product. Due to extreme differences of opinion on what constitutes good medical practice, the team designed the new product with maximum flexibility to suit the major demands of each country. Later, we discovered this flexibility to be of great advantage in developing and marketing international competitive products. Regarding cultural differences as a challenge rather than a problem may mean a little more investment of time and funds, but it is more likely to produce international workable teams, systems and products. This general approach albeit with variances in each case, has helped Japanese, Germans and Scandinavians adapt successfully to international markets. It has also helped cultivate the deep awareness of quality and consumer-friendliness, which characterizes the products of these successful countries, and pervades business thinking and aspirations. So if international companies are to tackle the challenge of culture where do they start? Let us look in more detail at the areas of business activity, which need to be culture-responsive. Steven Globerman discussed this issue as follows: Culture differences do not as a rule that prohibits doing business internationally, although they often oblige management to modify the way business is done from region to region. While modifications may be required, to a greater or lesser extent, in virtually all of the international firms activities, the particular areas that seem to be affected by cultural differences are the marketing and personnel relations functions. It points in the right direction and its implications are clear: managing and communicating with a culturally different or varied workforce requires new methods and techniques. Success in this first objective is needed so that the company may understand consumers whose behavior and tastes are different from that of the home country. 3. The basic content of business communication 3.1 Understanding Globalization Although globalization has come to the world ¼Ã…’most of the worlds businesses are not globalized ¼Ã… ½Business globalization is the ability of a corporation to take a product and market in the entire civilized world ¼Ã… ½International firms have subsidiaries or components in other countries ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ºhowever, control of the foreign operations is maintained at the home country headquarters. Multinational firms allow their foreign operations to exist as domestic organizations ¼Ã… ½Most firms are international ¼Ã…’either sourcing ¼Ã…’ producing ¼Ã…’or exporting ¼Ã… ½Thus the personnel of an organization must have a global mindset in order for the firm to succeed in the international marketplace. Laurent (1986), in a study of multinational corporations, found that successful multinational corporations do not submerge the individuality of different cultures completely in the corporate culture, that intercultural contact can promote a determination not to adjust to other cultures, and that new management theory and practice can be presented only to individuals who are culturally able and willing to accept it ¼Ã… ½Rhinesmith (l993) states The corporate culture contains the values, norms of behavior, systems, policies ¼Ã…’and procedures through which the organization adapts to the complexity of the global arena ¼Ã… ½Companies with franchises abroad have had to make certain adjustments to accommodate the taste and preferences of individual countries; for example. Tex-Mex cuisine is prepared kosher in Israel. According to Rhinesmith (1993), Diversity-both domestic and international will be the engine that drives the creative energy of the corporation of the twenty ¼Ã… ½first century ¼Ã… ½Successful global managers will be those who are able to manage this diversity for the innovative and competitive edge of their corporations. Since globalization has become an irresistible trend pervading throughout the world, international businessme n should take it into consideration and try their best to better cross-cultural business communication in the course of their international business journeys. 3.2 Understanding Intercultural Communication The term intercultural communication was first used by Edward T. Hall in 1959. Hall was one of the first researchers to differentiate cultures based on how communications are sent and received. Hall defined intercultural communication as communication between persons of different cultures. The subject of intercultural communication is beset by a major problem, since there is really very little agreement on what people mean by the idea of culture in the first place. Intercultural business communication is a relatively new term in the business world and is defined as communication within and between businesses that involves people from more than one culture. Intercultural business communication allows us to work on the procedural issues of country-to-country contacts, diplomacy, and legal contexts; it allows us to become involved with the substantive, cultural level and helps sensitize us to differences. It also allows us to gather information to make decisions when we are in an intercultural environment (Rohrlich, 1998). 3.3 The specific embodiment of business communication Business communication refers to the exchange of information resources and the touch of each other for a set purpose to establish a commercial relationship based on mutual benefit promoting the business activities to succeed. Cross-culture Communication in commerce is either a sort of business proceedings, or procedures for culture dialogue and betting game. To make business communication more effective, honest social relation needs to be created. Business Communication: communication used to promote a product, service, or organization; relay information within the business; or deal with legal and similar issues. It is also a means of relaying between a supply chain, for example the consumer and manufacturer. Business communication is somewhat different and unique rather from other type of communication since the purpose of business is to get profit. Thus to make good way for profit the communicator should develop good communication skills. Everyone knows that in the present day tren ds the knowledge alone wont be a fruitful one to have sustainable development. By knowing the importance of communication many organizations started training their employees in betterment of Communication techniques. Essentially due to globalization the world has become a Global village. Thus here the importance of cross cultural communication plays a vital role. Since each and every nation has their own meaning for each and every non verbal actions. The way we appear speaks a lot about us in business communication. A neat appearance is half done verbal communication. But developing communication is not a day work, it needs constant yearly practice. There are several ways to get trained in excelling business communication such 1. by our own, 2. by practicing from trainers, 3. by internet contents, 4. by books. 4. Cultural differences exhibited in international trade Numerous studies have been done to identify specific  characteristics that distinguish one culture from another.  The cultural difference between east and west is no  exception. Lets sum up some of the typical examples to  illustrate such differences. Greeting How do we Chinese greet each other? Informally, if we  meet a friend in the street, we are used to saying: Hi,  have you had your meal? or Where are you going?  When it is the case of two gentlemen, they tend to shake  hands.   However, in the western countries, the above  questions are just questions, not greeting at all. They  may think youre inviting them to dinner if you ask  about their meals. Usually, theyll just give each other a  smile or greet with a Hi. Theyll shake hands only in  some formal situations. By the way, Westerners can leave a party or meeting halls without a formal conge,  nor should they shake hands with every attendee like  most of us will do here. Showing Gratitude Think of the situations below. Your mother is busy in  the kitchen. She suddenly asks you to fetch a bowl for  her. You do so. Whatll your mothers response be?  Probably shell just continue doing the cooking. After a  while, the dinner is ready. Your mother hands you your  bowl of rice. Whats your response? Probably just begin  to eat. Chinese rarely say Thank you to other family  members for receiving help or service. Neither will we  say so between good friends. Its such an unpopular  response that if you say it, the counterpart will think you  are treating him as a stranger, otherwise you are lacking  of intimacy. But in the West, thank you is one of the most  frequently used sentences. Teachers will thank a student  for answering a question; husbands will thank his wife  for making a coffee. Table Manners The ways people eat-the table manner, really  distinguish a lot. Chinese use chopsticks or sometimes  even grasp rice straightly with hands as Indians do. The  thin and long chopsticks cannot be used to cut food, so  we use teeth as knives. We hold our food, meat or  vegetable, with the chopsticks, send them to the mouths,  bite off a part and remain the other part on the  chopsticks. Thats the usual way we eat. We are also  used to holding up our bowls when having rice or soup.  But all these are considered rude in the Western  countries. The etiquette in the West requests that when eating,  bowls and plates cannot leave the tables. Food should be  cut by knives to fit into the mouths. Your mouth cannot  touch the plates or bowls. So the regular process is cut  your steak on the plate with fork and knife, send the  meat cube into the mouth with fork and nothing will be  returned back but the fork alone. The reason for this is  probably because of the different dining tools and  menus. Symbolization Symbolization is how people imagine or regard  something, which reflects the way of people thinking.   We often  attach different signicance to different colors, because  we feel differently when facing different colors. On the  last day in the APEC summit held in Shanghai several  years ago, the presidents from all over the world wore  the traditional Chinese Dang suits and took a photo  together. The colors of the suits were chosen by  themselves freely. However, its quite interesting to find  that most Easterners chose red while most of the  westerners preferred blue. To explain this, its easy to  realize that what red means is almost opposite in the  East and the West. Red means luck, fortune here.  Chinese often use this color to decorate in festivals,  such as red lanterns, red Chinese nodes, and red bangers.  But red stands for blood, revolutions in the West. So the  presidents avoided wearing the unlucky color. In the East,  dragons are imagined as something like snake and are  flowing in the sky for most of the time. The dragon is  said to have the face of the horse, the horns of the deer,  the ears of the ox, the body of the snake, the claws of the  eagle and squama of the fish. We regard dragon as God  and view ourselves the offspring of the dragon. The God  of Dragons of the four seas can charge the rainfalls. But  in the West, people think dragons as dinosaurs, which  can stand on the ground with feet and fly with huge  wings. They lay eggs just like dinosaurs. The dragons of  the West have the ability to erupt fire, instead of water.  The fire can destroy everything so the dragons are not  welcomed at all. They even become the symbol of the  Devil. Unfortunately, attempts to categorize cultural  characteristics often end up in cultural stereotypes that  are unfair and misleading. In adjusting to your study  abroad environment, you will therefore have to deal not  only with real cultural differences, and also with  perceived cultural differences. Keep in mind that people  of other cultures are just as adept at stereotyping we  Chinese as we are at stereotyping them-and the results  are not always complimentary. The following are a few  examples of the qualities (some positive, some negative)  that others frequently associate with the typical  Chinese: hard working, being economical, reserved,  and ignorant of other countries, generous, hospitable, and  superstitious. While a stereotype might possess some  grain of truth, it is obvious when we consider individual  differences that not every Chinese fits the above  description. Most Germans, Japanese, Italians, etc.,  have stereotyped perceptions of the American, just as  most Americans have stereotyped images of Germans,  Japanese, Italians, etc. In short, misperceptions may  exist on all sides. Frequently, the stereotype of the  American is far from complimentary: the boorish tourist  who expects everyone to speak English, the arrogant  patriot who thinks every country in the world should  pattern itself after the United States, the drunken reveler  who sees the anonymity of traveling abroad as an  opportunity to drop all civilized inhibitions-all have  contributed to the development of this unfortunate  stereotype. It is up to you to behave in a manner that will  convince your hosts that this is indeed an unjustified  stereotype that cannot be applied arbitrarily, at least to  yourself. 5. Conclusion 5.1 Research findings With the globalization of the world economy, organizations, especially multinational corporations, are culturally diverse in their formation of the workforce and in handling al kinds of business activities. China has seen an increasing number of FIE (Foreign Individual Enterprise) entering the Chinese market, since the country adopted the policy of opening to the outside world more than twenty years ago. The culturally diversified workforce has brought greater vitality to business, but business people today are facing many problems in their cross-cultural communication. More and more business people have become aware of the strong impact from culture, and they have come to realize the importance of understanding cross-cultural communication. As all nations have their own cultures, it is not difficult to find that people bring along with them their cultures wherever they go and tend to cling to them. As more and more Chinese business people are employed by FIEs, they are facing the same problem of learning and respecting foreign cultures as the Western business people do with the Chinese cultures. In many cases, business people find that it is really nor easy to communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds. Sometimes, people may mistake someone as a culturally identical person, which often ends in troubles. In order to avoid misunderstandings in our cross-cultural communication, we should pay attention to the ways to decrease or eliminate the cultural conflicts. 5.2 Suggestions Globalization, for better or worse, has changed the way the world does business. Though in its early stage, it is all but unstoppable. At the same time, it also provides for global businessmen a challenge as well as chance. To be triumphant in international business, one should learn how to live with it, manage it and take advantage of the benefit it offers. The globalization of economics has created a confluence of cultures when it comes to business practices. Meshing these cultures has proven difficult even as it has proven necessary. In many cases the quest for a one-size-fits-all set of standards for global business behavior has progressed quite far. Global business is moving toward a world standard. In this sense, it is unpractical to accommodate stereotyping cultural theories to developing relationship in the course of international business that is developing all time along. With time going, more and more new problems and conflicts will occur when doing business internationally whatever in managing, negotiating or cooperating. Cultures will gradually melt with each other, but rooted values and norms will still cause the occurrence of clashes. Thus problems can only be solved in certain circumstance at certain time. Invariable solutions with shaped cultural ideas will only lead to prejudice and more conflicts; while adaptable solutions according to specific situation of intercultural communication is more valuable and worthy of being conserved. Nothing can be unchangeable, thus is the same with the study of cultural differences in the course of international business. Therefore, dynamic research should be furthered and kept so as to keep up with the development of international business.